Policy Update
Aditi Singh Kaushik
Background:
In the 21st century, the extensive popularity of Bollywood movies in Turkey, and the ever-growing appeal of Turkish dramas in India are emblematic of the sustained soft power diplomacy of the two sovereign nations. The roots of such connections, however, can be traced back over centuries, which included a continuous give and take between Indians and the Turks. This international cultural network between the south and west of Asia was established through consistent cultural exchanges initiated by the Sufis, who might be credited as some of the most prominent pioneers of cultural diplomacy between India and Turkey.
In the medieval and early modern period, some Sufi orders who entered Anatolia (known today as the Asian part of Turkey) after flourishing in India, played a crucial role in transferring mystical thoughts and Sufi literature to Anatolia through various channels. Around 150-200 Ottoman era archives mention the presence of Indian Sufis in various cities of the Ottoman Sultanate. (Anas, 2023)
Scholars have also observed that some of the musical instruments in India and Turkey have historically belonged to the same artistic family. Although regional variations exist, some believe that the music of two distinct cultures is closely related to each other, which can be most clearly observed in musical instruments. Cultural relations between India and Turkey, have therefore have existed since time immemorial, and have today, found a niche in the form of music diplomacy.
The Beginning of Sufism:
Some scholars note that the relationship between Turkish dynasties in the Indian subcontinent and the Ottoman Turks began after the conquest of Constantinople at the end of the fifteenth century, followed by the conquest of Egypt and Hejaz in 1517 by the Ottomans. Following these episodes, cultural relations began flourishing between the two distinct cultures. (Kutlutürk, 2020)
However, some suggest that the Sufi networks had started spreading at the time of the Delhi Sultanate. Even though Baghdad was the power capital of the world and the Mongol invasions of India had not started yet, Indian cities were attracting Sufis from all around the world. Historians have also recorded huge traffic of Sufi travellers between fourteen to nineteenth centuries, which explains why Istanbul and other Ottoman cities emerged as major centres of Indian Sufis. (Anas, 2023)
What also played a pivotal role in the spread of Sufi traditions was its intersection with Hindu philosophy. In their encounter with Hindu philosophical traditions, Indian Sufi traditions mastered new discourses and gained even more popularity. As the translation of Hindu texts spread, the Sufis were more curious than ever to engage with the popular texts. Records of such translations include Al Biruni’s Patanjali’s Yogasutra, Varahmihira’s Brihatsamhita, and Darah Shikoh’s translation of the Upanishadas as Sirr- i Akbar.
Establishment of Sufi Networks:
Indian Muslims prominently followed four major Sufi orders, these included Chishtia, Naqshbandiyya, Qadiriyya, and Suhrawardiyya. The earliest of them was the Chishtia order which was propounded by Moinuddin Chishti – one of the most celebrated Sufis in the Indian subcontinent. Among the various Sufi schools of thought that spread from the South of Asia to the West, the Mujaddidiyah movement emerged as one of the most influential sub-branches of the Naqshabandi school of thought.
Naqshabandiyya Sheikhs, who were trained in India, established Indian lodges, known as Hindiler Tekkesi, in different parts of the Ottoman Empire, to introduce mysticism and Sufi traditions to the native people. The Naqshabandiyya order, therefore, provided a strong transnational Sufi network between India and Turkey.
Musical Instruments and Historical Connections:
Scholars have discovered similarities in vintage musical instruments played in India and Turkey. Although regional variations exist, they assert that some of these belong to the same artistic family. These include:
1. Tambura and Tanbur
The Tambura is an Indian string drone instrument with open strings, while the Tanbur is a Turkish classical lute with a long neck. Despite regional differences, they have almost the same shape. For example – the Indian Tambura is classified as a plucked instrument, while the Tanbur is both a plucked and bowed instrument, depending on musical style and regional variations. The origin of the instruments remains debated even today, as some scholars contextualise them in the Middle East, while some such as Abdul Razak Kanpuri assert that the word Tambura is Indian (originating from ‘Tumba’).
2. Sarangi and Kemençe
The classical Kemençe of Turkey is a short lute, originally hollowed out of a block of wood, which makes its anatomy similar to its bowed equivalent – Sarangi. The Sarangi and Kemençe are both bowed instruments. The short lutes found in India, although different in shape from the ones located in the West, are also hollowed out of a piece of wood.
3. Shahani and Zurna
Shahnai and Zurna do not only hold uncanny resemblance in their structure, but also in their linguistic relations. Variants of the two instruments have existed as Surnai, Zarna, Sirnai, and Sarune. Zurna in Turkey is described as a “double – reed instrument with conical bores”, most often known as a variant of Shahnai.
Similarities found in musical instruments of these kinds suggest that over centuries there has been a continuous give and take between Persians, Arabs, Indians and Turks. It is also suggested that these historical records explain how certain classical instruments from India and Turkey belong to the same artistic family.
Some scholars observe that understanding the relationship between Indian and Turkish musical instruments helps us perceive music as a social structure residing in the two cultures. Moreover, such historical understanding may also allow musicians to be more creative and open-minded in bridging cultural connections, in the form of music diplomacy, between the two regions crossing long distances.
Connections in the 21st Century:
Indian Sufi connections still find a prominent place in Turkey’s Sufi traditions. On the other hand, the Sufi philosophy of Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi has found a natural resonance in the Indian subcontinent. Over the years, India and Turkey have organised a diverse array of events to deepen cultural bonds between the two nations. These include Banyan Tree’s flagship Sufi and Mystic Musical Festival – Ruhaniyat, which was organised for the first time in Istanbul in 2014, and India by the Bosphorus in 2019, featuring Indian dance, music, cuisine, and fashion in major Turkish cities.
The longstanding foundations of cultural exchanges, prominently through music and mysticism, may also be revived via the re-introduction of Indian Sufi Memorials in Turkey which could not only help contextualise the influence of Indian Sufi traditions, but can also help revive India- Turkey relations beyond political exchanges.
References:
- Mir, Rayees. (2024). Soft-Power as Means of Strengthening India-Türkiye Relations Post 2003. South India Journal of Social Sciences. 22. 108-119. 10.62656/SIJSS.v22i4.1534
- Kutlutürk, C. (2020). Transnational Sufi networks in India and Anatolia: Naqshbandiyah-Mujaddidiyah Order. Journal of History Culture and Art Research, 9(2), 267. https://doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v9i2.2602
About the Contributor:
Aditi Singh Kaushik is a Research Intern at IMPRI. She holds a Master’s degree in Political Science from Banaras Hindu University. Her research interest lies in understanding the evolving roles of traditional and organic intellectuals in post-colonial countries, within a Gramscian framework.
Acknowledgement:
The author sincerely thanks Ms. Aasthaba Jadeja and the IMPRI team for their valuable support.
Disclaimer:
All views expressed in the article belong solely to the author and not necessarily to the organisation.
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